The final accounts of a business are prepared at the end of an accounting period to determine the financial position of the business. These accounts include:
1. Trading Account
- The Trading Account helps in determining the gross profit or gross loss of the business by calculating the difference between sales and the cost of goods sold (COGS).
- Format:
- Sales (Net of returns)
- Less: Cost of Goods Sold (COGS):
- Opening Stock
- Purchases
- Direct Expenses (e.g., wages, freight)
- Less: Closing Stock
- Gross Profit/Loss (Sales – COGS)
The result from the Trading Account is either a gross profit (if sales exceed COGS) or a gross loss (if COGS exceeds sales).
2. Profit and Loss Account
- The Profit and Loss Account is used to determine the net profit or net loss of the business by adjusting the gross profit with operating expenses and non-operating incomes/expenses.
- Format:
- Gross Profit (brought forward from the Trading Account)
- Add: Other incomes (interest, rent, etc.)
- Less: Operating expenses (salaries, rent, depreciation, etc.)
- Net Profit/Net Loss (Gross profit + Income – Expenses)
3. Balance Sheet
- The Balance Sheet shows the financial position of a business at a given point in time. It consists of two parts:
- Assets: What the company owns
- Liabilities: What the company owes
- The Balance Sheet is based on the accounting equation: Assets=Liabilities+Owner’s Equity\text{Assets} = \text{Liabilities} + \text{Owner’s Equity}Assets=Liabilities+Owner’s Equity
- Format:
- Assets:
- Non-current assets (e.g., property, plant, and equipment)
- Current assets (e.g., cash, receivables, inventories)
- Liabilities:
- Non-current liabilities (e.g., long-term loans)
- Current liabilities (e.g., accounts payable, short-term loans)
- Owner’s Equity: (Capital, reserves, retained earnings)
- Assets:
4. Adjustment Entries
Adjustments are made at the end of the accounting period to ensure that revenues and expenses are recognized in the correct period. These adjustments can affect:
- Accrued Income or Expenses (e.g., interest income earned but not received, wages earned but not paid)
- Prepaid Expenses or Income (e.g., rent paid in advance, insurance paid for future periods)
- Depreciation (allocation of the cost of a long-term asset over its useful life)
- Bad Debts (amounts written off as uncollectible)
Example of Adjustment:
- If you have prepaid insurance for a year but are preparing accounts for 6 months, you will adjust the prepaid portion to reflect only the expense for the 6 months.
5. Marshalling of Balance Sheet
- Marshalling of the Balance Sheet refers to the arrangement or ordering of the assets and liabilities in a certain way to highlight the financial position more clearly.
- It can be done in two ways:
- Order of Liquidity: Assets are listed in the order of how easily they can be converted to cash (i.e., current assets before non-current assets).
- Order of Permanency: Liabilities are arranged in terms of their maturity (i.e., long-term liabilities before short-term liabilities).
Example of Marshalling:
- Assets: Current Assets → Non-current Assets
- Liabilities: Current Liabilities → Non-current Liabilities
This structure provides clarity on the business’s solvency and liquidity.
Conclusion
Final accounts include:
- Trading Account: Calculates the gross profit/loss.
- Profit and Loss Account: Determines the net profit/loss.
- Balance Sheet: Provides the financial position of the business.
Adjustments ensure accuracy in reporting, and marshalling helps in presenting the financial data in a structured manner.
What is Final Accounts and Concept of Trading, Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), Marshalling of Balance Sheet ?
Final Accounts
Final accounts are the financial statements prepared at the end of an accounting period to summarize the financial performance and financial position of a business. These include:
- Trading Account: Determines the gross profit or gross loss of the business.
- Profit and Loss Account: Calculates the net profit or net loss by accounting for operating and non-operating incomes and expenses.
- Balance Sheet: Reflects the financial position of the business at a specific point in time, showing its assets, liabilities, and owner’s equity.
Concept of Trading Account
The Trading Account is used to calculate the Gross Profit or Gross Loss of the business. It focuses on the direct costs of producing goods or services, primarily sales and the cost of goods sold (COGS).
Trading Account Format
Sales: Total sales revenue.
Less: Cost of Goods Sold (COGS):
Gross Profit: If sales exceed COGS.
Gross Loss: If COGS exceeds sales.
Concept of Profit and Loss Account
The Profit and Loss (P&L) Account is used to determine the Net Profit or Net Loss by adjusting the gross profit or loss with operating expenses (e.g., rent, salaries, depreciation) and non-operating incomes/expenses (e.g., interest income or expenses).
Profit and Loss Account Format
- Gross Profit (Carried over from the Trading Account)
- Add: Other incomes (interest, rent, etc.)
- Less: Operating expenses (salaries, rent, depreciation, etc.)
- Net Profit/Net Loss: The final result, after adjusting incomes and expenses.
Concept of Balance Sheet
The Balance Sheet provides a snapshot of a business’s financial position at a specific point in time. It lists all the assets owned by the business and the liabilities it owes, along with the owner’s equity.
The balance sheet follows the accounting equation:Assets=Liabilities+Owner’s Equity\text{Assets} = \text{Liabilities} + \text{Owner’s Equity}Assets=Liabilities+Owner’s Equity
Balance Sheet Format
- Assets:
- Non-current Assets (e.g., land, machinery, buildings)
- Current Assets (e.g., cash, inventory, receivables)
- Liabilities:
- Non-current Liabilities (e.g., long-term loans)
- Current Liabilities (e.g., accounts payable, short-term loans)
- Owner’s Equity: Includes capital, reserves, and retained earnings.
Final Accounts with and without Adjustments
Without Adjustments:
- Without adjustments, the final accounts are prepared using the basic information available from the books of accounts, such as sales, purchases, and stock values.
- It does not account for certain items that should be adjusted at the end of the period (like prepaid expenses, accrued income, depreciation, etc.).
With Adjustments:
- Adjustments are made at the end of the accounting period to ensure that all expenses and revenues are properly recognized in the correct period.
- Examples of adjustments include:
- Accrued Expenses: Expenses that have been incurred but not paid (e.g., wages).
- Prepaid Expenses: Payments made for expenses that cover more than one period (e.g., insurance paid in advance).
- Depreciation: A method of allocating the cost of long-term assets over their useful lives.
- Bad Debts: Amounts deemed uncollectible from customers.
Adjusted accounts provide a more accurate reflection of a company’s financial performance and position.
Marshalling of Balance Sheet
Marshalling of the Balance Sheet refers to the order in which the assets and liabilities are presented in the balance sheet. There are two common methods of marshalling:
- Marshalling by Liquidity (Order of Liquidity):
- Assets are listed in the order of how easily they can be converted into cash (e.g., current assets like cash and receivables are listed before non-current assets like property or machinery).
- Liabilities are listed in the order of their due date (e.g., current liabilities like short-term loans are listed before non-current liabilities like long-term debt).
- Marshalling by Permanency (Order of Permanency):
- Liabilities are listed in the order of their maturity (e.g., long-term liabilities before current liabilities).
- Assets are listed from the most permanent (non-current assets like property) to the most liquid (current assets like cash).
Conclusion
- Trading Account helps calculate gross profit or loss.
- Profit and Loss Account determines net profit or loss after considering operating and non-operating items.
- Balance Sheet provides a snapshot of assets, liabilities, and owner’s equity.
- Adjustments ensure financial statements reflect the correct values for a period.
- Marshalling of the Balance Sheet helps in organizing financial information either by liquidity or permanency for clearer presentation.
Together, these final accounts help businesses assess their financial health and make informed decisions.
Who is required Final Accounts and Concept of Trading, Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), Marshalling of Balance Sheet ?
Final Accounts, including the Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), are essential financial documents required by various stakeholders in a business or organization. They are important tools for assessing the financial performance and position of a company.
Who Requires Final Accounts and the Related Concepts?
- Business Owners and Management
- Purpose: To evaluate the profitability, financial position, and liquidity of the business.
- Why: Owners and management use final accounts to make strategic decisions, assess performance, and plan for future growth or improvements. The Profit and Loss Account provides insights into profitability, while the Balance Sheet offers a snapshot of the company’s financial standing.
- Investors and Shareholders
- Purpose: To assess the financial health of the company and make informed decisions about investing in or retaining shares of the business.
- Why: Investors look at the Profit and Loss Account for profitability trends and the Balance Sheet to determine asset value, liabilities, and equity. They also use final accounts to analyze return on investment (ROI).
- Creditors and Lenders (Banks, Financial Institutions)
- Purpose: To evaluate the creditworthiness of the business before lending money or offering credit.
- Why: Lenders look at the Balance Sheet to assess the company’s liabilities, assets, and equity. The Profit and Loss Account provides insight into the company’s ability to generate profits and repay debts. The final accounts help creditors gauge the risk associated with extending credit.
- Government and Regulatory Authorities (Taxation, Compliance)
- Purpose: To ensure that the company complies with tax laws, regulations, and reporting requirements.
- Why: Government agencies require businesses to file financial statements, including final accounts, for tax calculation purposes. The Profit and Loss Account helps in determining taxable income, while the Balance Sheet aids in assessing the company’s financial obligations.
- Auditors
- Purpose: To verify the accuracy and fairness of financial statements and ensure compliance with accounting standards and regulations.
- Why: Auditors examine final accounts to verify that the Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet reflect the true financial position of the business, and adjustments such as accruals, prepaid expenses, and depreciation are correctly made.
- Employees (especially in larger companies)
- Tax Authorities
- Purpose: To ensure correct tax payments and compliance with tax laws.
- Why: Tax authorities require businesses to file accurate final accounts (including the Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet) to assess the correct amount of tax liability. Adjustments for accruals, provisions, and depreciation are crucial for tax reporting.
- External Stakeholders (Analysts, Advisors)
- Purpose: To assess the company’s financial status for advisory, analysis, or reporting purposes.
- Why: Financial analysts and advisors use the final accounts to provide insights into the company’s financial health, make recommendations, or publish reports for third parties such as investors, clients, or analysts.
- Public (for Public Companies)
- Purpose: To review the financial health of public companies and make informed decisions.
- Why: Publicly traded companies are required to disclose their financial statements (including final accounts) to shareholders and the public. This transparency helps in maintaining trust and allows potential investors to make informed decisions.
Concepts of Trading, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments)
Trading Account: Required to calculate the gross profit or loss by subtracting the cost of goods sold from the sales. This helps in assessing the core operational efficiency of the business.
Profit and Loss Account: Needed to determine the net profit or loss after accounting for all operating and non-operating expenses/income. It shows how much profit a business generates after deducting costs and expenses from revenue.
Balance Sheet: Required to show the company’s financial position at a specific point in time, outlining the assets, liabilities, and equity. It is crucial for assessing financial stability and solvency.
Adjustments: Necessary to ensure that the accounts reflect the correct financial position at year-end. They account for items like accrued income/expenses, prepaid expenses, bad debts, depreciation, etc. Adjustments are especially important for preparing more accurate financial statements.
With Adjustments: Provides a more accurate representation of the company’s financial performance and position.
Without Adjustments: Can lead to misleading financial results due to the omission of necessary accruals or adjustments.
Marshalling of Balance Sheet
Who Needs It: Required by anyone who analyzes financial
When is required Final Accounts and Concept of Trading, Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), Marshalling of Balance Sheet ?
Final Accounts, including the Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), and Marshalling of the Balance Sheet are required in various contexts, often linked to specific business cycles, regulatory requirements, and decision-making processes. These financial statements are typically prepared at the end of an accounting period, which could vary depending on the type of business and regulatory requirements. Below are specific situations when these financial statements and concepts are required:
1. End of an Accounting Period
- When: At the close of each financial year or accounting period (typically quarterly, semi-annually, or annually).
- Why: Final accounts are required to summarize and report the financial performance and position of the business over the accounting period.
- Trading Account: To determine gross profit or loss from core business operations (sales and cost of goods sold).
- Profit and Loss Account: To calculate net profit or loss by considering all income and expenses.
- Balance Sheet: To show the company’s assets, liabilities, and equity as of the financial period’s end.
2. Before Tax Filing and Compliance
- When: At the end of the financial year or fiscal year, when the business is preparing to file tax returns.
- Why: Regulatory authorities, like tax departments, require final accounts to compute taxable income, ensure compliance with tax laws, and assess the company’s tax liabilities.
- Adjustments such as accruals, depreciation, and prepaid expenses are necessary for accurate tax reporting.
3. Auditing and Financial Review
- When: Periodically, usually at the end of each financial year or when an audit is scheduled.
- Why: External auditors or internal teams use final accounts to verify the accuracy and fairness of a company’s financial statements.
- Adjustments (like provisions for bad debts or accrued expenses) are checked for correctness during the audit process.
- The Marshalling of Balance Sheet ensures that assets and liabilities are presented clearly, supporting a thorough review.
4. Business Decision-Making and Planning
- When: At regular intervals, such as monthly, quarterly, or annually, to assess business performance.
- Why: Business owners, managers, and other stakeholders need final accounts to evaluate financial health, profitability, and liquidity, aiding in decision-making like investment, expansion, or cost management.
- The Trading Account helps assess operational efficiency.
- The Profit and Loss Account helps identify trends in profitability.
- The Balance Sheet aids in understanding the company’s financial stability.
5. Loan or Credit Applications
- When: When a company applies for loans, credit lines, or financing from financial institutions.
- Why: Lenders require final accounts to assess the financial stability and solvency of the business before approving any loans or credit.
- Balance Sheet: Provides a snapshot of the company’s assets, liabilities, and equity to determine its ability to repay debts.
- Profit and Loss Account: Demonstrates the company’s ability to generate profits and repay the loan over time.
6. Investor and Shareholder Reporting
- When: At the end of a financial year or whenever requested by investors or shareholders.
- Why: Investors and shareholders use final accounts to evaluate the performance and health of the business, helping them make informed decisions regarding investment, dividends, or selling shares.
- Profit and Loss Account: Provides insights into profitability.
- Balance Sheet: Helps assess the company’s financial position and growth potential.
7. Merger and Acquisition (M&A) Transactions
- When: During the due diligence process for mergers or acquisitions.
- Why: Final accounts are required to assess the financial viability of a business being acquired or merged.
- Balance Sheet: Provides insight into the assets and liabilities of the target company.
- Profit and Loss Account: Helps to assess the profitability and operational performance of the company being considered for acquisition.
8. Financial Forecasting and Budgeting
- When: As part of ongoing business planning or before setting financial goals for the upcoming period.
- Why: Final accounts help set realistic financial goals and forecasts based on historical data.
- Profit and Loss Account: Helps project future revenues and expenses based on past trends.
- Balance Sheet: Assists in budgeting for capital expenditures, debt management, and working capital.
9. Valuation of Business
- When: When a business is being valued for sale, investment, or for internal purposes.
- Why: The value of a business is often determined using its financial statements, including final accounts. The Balance Sheet is crucial for understanding the company’s asset base, liabilities, and net worth.
- Profit and Loss Account helps assess the earning potential of the business.
- Adjustments like depreciation or provisions are considered.
Where is required Final Accounts and Concept of Trading, Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), Marshalling of Balance Sheet ?
Final Accounts, including the Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), as well as the Marshalling of the Balance Sheet, are required in various places and for different purposes, both within and outside an organization. These financial statements and concepts are necessary for decision-making, compliance, reporting, and analysis across different stakeholders and sectors.
1. Within a Business Organization
- Accounting Department:
- Purpose: To prepare, record, and report the financial status of the business at the end of each accounting period.
- Why: To calculate profits, losses, and financial position for internal decision-making.
- Where: Accounting software or manual records where final accounts are maintained.
- Management:
- Purpose: To assess the financial performance and make strategic decisions.
- Why: The Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet help in determining profitability, cash flow, and business health.
- Where: Management reports or internal financial analysis.
- Finance and Audit Department:
- Purpose: For internal audits, review, and compliance with accounting principles and regulations.
- Why: To ensure financial accuracy, compliance, and operational transparency.
- Where: During financial audits, reviews, or reporting cycles.
- Investment and Budgeting Teams:
- Purpose: To plan for future capital investments and set annual or quarterly budgets.
- Why: The Final Accounts (especially the Balance Sheet) help in understanding liquidity, assets, and liabilities.
- Where: During budget meetings or forecasting sessions.
2. External Stakeholders
- Regulatory Authorities (e.g., Tax Authorities, Government):
- Purpose: To ensure compliance with tax laws, financial regulations, and standards.
- Why: Final accounts are necessary for tax reporting, auditing, and regulatory submissions.
- Where: Tax filings, regulatory filings (e.g., with the Income Tax Department), and compliance documentation.
- Banks and Financial Institutions:
- Purpose: For assessing the creditworthiness of the company when applying for loans or credit lines.
- Why: Lenders need to analyze the Profit and Loss Account to assess profitability and the Balance Sheet to evaluate solvency and financial health.
- Where: Loan applications, financial assessments, and credit evaluations.
- Investors and Shareholders:
- Purpose: To evaluate a company’s performance, profitability, and financial position before making investment decisions.
- Why: Investors rely on Final Accounts to assess returns, growth potential, and risks.
- Where: Annual reports, shareholder meetings, or investment portfolios.
- Auditors (Internal and External):
- Purpose: To verify the accuracy of financial statements and ensure that they comply with accounting standards.
- Why: Auditors review Final Accounts to ensure they reflect a true and fair view of the company’s financial performance and position.
- Where: Audit reports, financial assessments, and regulatory reviews.
- Suppliers and Creditors:
- Purpose: To assess the financial health of a company before extending credit or making significant transactions.
- Why: Suppliers want to ensure that the business can meet its obligations and payments.
- Where: Credit assessment forms, financial reviews before major transactions or supply agreements.
3. In Legal and Regulatory Contexts
- Tax Authorities (Government):
- Purpose: For verifying tax liabilities, deductions, and compliance with tax laws.
- Why: Final accounts are required for income tax calculations, reporting, and audits.
- Where: Tax return filings and government audits.
- Corporate Governance and Compliance:
- Purpose: To ensure companies follow proper accounting practices and legal requirements.
- Why: Regulatory frameworks, such as the Companies Act or IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards), require companies to maintain final accounts and submit them for legal scrutiny.
- Where: Regulatory filings, company reports, and compliance audits.
4. In Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A)
Purpose: During the due diligence process, financial statements are required to assess the financial health, valuation, and risks of the company involved in the merger or
How is required Final Accounts and Concept of Trading, Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), Marshalling of Balance Sheet ?
The preparation of Final Accounts, including the Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), as well as the Marshalling of the Balance Sheet, is required in a specific sequence, with precise concepts and methods. Here’s a breakdown of how each of these components is created and their relevance:
1. Preparation of Final Accounts
Final accounts are essential financial statements that provide a comprehensive overview of a company’s financial performance and position over an accounting period. These are generally prepared at the end of the fiscal year (or at the close of a given accounting period, which could be quarterly, annually, or as required).
a. Trading Account
- Purpose: To determine the gross profit or gross loss from trading activities (the basic operational activities like buying and selling of goods).
- How:
- Sales (Revenue from selling goods) is recorded on the credit side.
- Cost of Goods Sold (COGS) (opening stock + purchases – closing stock) is recorded on the debit side.
- Gross Profit is the difference between Sales and COGS.
- Gross Loss occurs if the COGS exceeds sales.
- Formula:Gross Profit=Sales−Cost of Goods Sold (COGS)\text{Gross Profit} = \text{Sales} – \text{Cost of Goods Sold (COGS)}Gross Profit=Sales−Cost of Goods Sold (COGS)
b. Profit and Loss Account
- Purpose: To calculate the net profit or net loss by accounting for all operational income and expenses, excluding direct trading activities.
- How:
- Start with the Gross Profit (or Gross Loss) from the Trading Account.
- Deduct Operating Expenses (like salaries, rent, utilities, etc.) on the debit side.
- Add any Other Income (e.g., interest income, dividend income) on the credit side.
- The final result will be Net Profit (if the income exceeds expenses) or Net Loss (if expenses exceed income).
- Formula:Net Profit=Gross Profit+Other Income−Operating Expenses\text{Net Profit} = \text{Gross Profit} + \text{Other Income} – \text{Operating Expenses}Net Profit=Gross Profit+Other Income−Operating Expenses
c. Balance Sheet
- Purpose: To present the financial position of the business by listing all the assets, liabilities, and equity as of a specific date.
- How:
- Assets (both current and non-current) are listed on the left or asset side.
- Liabilities (both current and non-current) are listed on the right or liabilities side.
- Equity (owner’s capital, retained earnings) is part of liabilities, showing what belongs to the business owners.
- Assets = Liabilities + Equity (Accounting Equation).
- Formula:Assets=Liabilities+Owner’s Equity\text{Assets} = \text{Liabilities} + \text{Owner’s Equity}Assets=Liabilities+Owner’s Equity
- With Adjustments:
- Adjustments like depreciation, outstanding expenses, accrued income, provisions for bad debts, and changes in stock values are recorded.
- These adjustments ensure that the accounts are in line with accrual and matching principles (revenue and expenses are matched to the correct accounting period).
- Depreciation: Reduces the book value of assets, added to the Trading Account and adjusted in the Balance Sheet.
- Outstanding Expenses: Added to the Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet.
- Accrued Income: Added to the Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet.
d. Without Adjustments
- The Balance Sheet would only reflect the actual transactions (i.e., without accounting for any timing or estimation differences that adjustments typically address).
- In such cases, the final accounts may not accurately reflect the true financial health of the business, as necessary expenses or revenues could be omitted.
2. Marshalling of the Balance Sheet
Marshalling of the Balance Sheet refers to the systematic arrangement of the assets and liabilities in the balance sheet, usually done in a logical order to make the financial position clearer.
a. Assets
- Non-Current Assets (Fixed Assets): These include land, buildings, machinery, patents, and goodwill—assets that are not easily convertible to cash.
- Current Assets: These are assets that are expected to be converted into cash or used up within a year, such as inventory, accounts receivable, cash, and short-term investments.
Order of Presentation:
- Fixed Assets (e.g., property, plant, and equipment)
- Intangible Assets (e.g., goodwill, patents)
- Current Assets (e.g., inventories, accounts receivable, cash)
- Other Assets (e.g., long-term investments)
b. Liabilities
- Non-Current Liabilities (Long-Term Liabilities): These include debts or obligations that are due beyond one year, such as long-term loans, bonds payable, or deferred tax liabilities.
- Current Liabilities: These are obligations that the company needs to settle within the next year, such as accounts payable, short-term loans, and accrued expenses.
Order of Presentation:
- Long-Term Liabilities (e.g., loans, bonds)
- Current Liabilities (e.g., payables, short-term borrowings)
- Owner’s Equity (Capital and Reserves): This shows the net worth or shareholders’ equity in the company.Order:
- Owner’s Equity (e.g., capital, retained earnings)
- Profit/Loss for the Period
3. Adjustments in Final Accounts
Adjustments are necessary to ensure the accounts provide an accurate representation of the company’s financial performance and position. Some common adjustments are:
- Prepaid Expenses (deducted from expenses, added to current assets)
- Outstanding Expenses (added to expenses, added to current liabilities)
- Accrued Income (added to income, added to current assets)
- Bad Debts (deducted from accounts receivable, included in expense)
By including these adjustments, the final accounts (Trading, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet) provide a true and fair view of the company’s financial state.
Summary:
- Final Accounts (Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, Balance Sheet) are prepared to assess the profitability and
Case study is Final Accounts and Concept of Trading, Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), Marshalling of Balance Sheet ?
Case Study: Final Accounts and Concept of Trading, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), Marshalling of Balance Sheet
Let’s consider a fictional company ABC Ltd. that manufactures and sells electronic products. At the end of the financial year, they need to prepare their final accounts, which include the Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet.
We’ll analyze with and without adjustments, and also discuss marshalling of the balance sheet.
Company: ABC Ltd.
Period: January 1, 2023 – December 31, 2023
Financial Data for the Year 2023:
- Sales Revenue: ₹2,00,000
- Opening Stock: ₹40,000
- Purchases: ₹1,00,000
- Closing Stock: ₹30,000
- Expenses:
- Rent: ₹20,000
- Salaries: ₹30,000
- Utilities: ₹10,000
- Depreciation: ₹5,000
- Interest on Loan: ₹3,000
- Other Income:
- Interest Income: ₹2,000
- Outstanding Expenses:
- Rent: ₹2,000
- Accrued Income:
- Interest Income: ₹500
Step 1: Trading Account (without adjustments)
The Trading Account calculates the Gross Profit or Gross Loss by comparing Sales with the Cost of Goods Sold (COGS).
Trading Account (without adjustments):
| Particulars | Amount (₹) |
|---|---|
| Sales | 2,00,000 |
| Less: Cost of Goods Sold | |
| Opening Stock | 40,000 |
| Add: Purchases | 1,00,000 |
| Less: Closing Stock | (30,000) |
| Cost of Goods Sold (COGS) | 1,10,000 |
| Gross Profit | 90,000 |
- Gross Profit = Sales – Cost of Goods Sold = ₹2,00,000 – ₹1,10,000 = ₹90,000
Step 2: Profit and Loss Account (without adjustments)
The Profit and Loss Account determines the Net Profit or Net Loss by factoring in the operating expenses and income.
Profit and Loss Account (without adjustments):
| Particulars | Amount (₹) |
|---|---|
| Gross Profit | 90,000 |
| Less: Expenses | |
| Rent | 20,000 |
| Salaries | 30,000 |
| Utilities | 10,000 |
| Depreciation | 5,000 |
| Interest on Loan | 3,000 |
| Total Expenses | 68,000 |
| Net Profit | 22,000 |
- Net Profit = Gross Profit – Total Expenses = ₹90,000 – ₹68,000 = ₹22,000
Step 3: Balance Sheet (without adjustments)
Now, we prepare the Balance Sheet showing the company’s financial position.
Balance Sheet (without adjustments):
| Liabilities | Amount (₹) | Assets | Amount (₹) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Capital | 50,000 | Fixed Assets | 30,000 |
| Loan (Liabilities) | 20,000 | Current Assets | |
| Accounts Payable | 10,000 | Cash and Bank | 15,000 |
| Profit for the Year | 22,000 | Accounts Receivable | 10,000 |
| Total Liabilities | 1,02,000 | Stock (Closing) | 30,000 |
| Total Assets | 1,02,000 |
- Total Liabilities = Capital + Loan + Accounts Payable + Profit for the Year = ₹50,000 + ₹20,000 + ₹10,000 + ₹22,000 = ₹1,02,000
- Total Assets = Fixed Assets + Current Assets = ₹30,000 (Fixed Assets) + ₹72,000 (Current Assets: Cash + Receivables + Stock) = ₹1,02,000
Step 4: Final Accounts with Adjustments
Now we will adjust for the following items:
- Outstanding Rent: ₹2,000 (This needs to be added to the Rent Expense and Liabilities).
- Accrued Interest Income: ₹500 (This needs to be added to the Interest Income and Current Assets).
Adjusted Profit and Loss Account:
| Particulars | Amount (₹) |
|---|---|
| Gross Profit | 90,000 |
| Less: Expenses | |
| Rent (Adjusted) | 22,000 |
| Salaries | 30,000 |
| Utilities | 10,000 |
| Depreciation | 5,000 |
| Interest on Loan | 3,000 |
| Total Expenses | 70,000 |
| Net Profit | 20,000 |
Adjusted Balance Sheet:
| Liabilities | Amount (₹) | Assets | Amount (₹) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Capital | 50,000 | Fixed Assets | 30,000 |
| Loan (Liabilities) | 20,000 | Current Assets | |
| Accounts Payable | 10,000 | Cash and Bank | 15,000 |
| Outstanding Rent | 2,000 | Accounts Receivable | 10,000 |
| Profit for the Year | 20,000 | Accrued Interest | 500 |
| Total Liabilities | 1,02,000 | Stock (Closing) | 30,000 |
| Total Assets | 1,02,500 |
Step 5: Marshalling of the Balance Sheet
In the marshalling of the balance sheet, assets and liabilities are listed in a specific order based on their liquidity (assets) and maturity (liabilities):
Marshalled Balance Sheet:
Assets:
- Non-Current Assets:
- Fixed Assets: ₹30,000
- Current Assets:
- Stock: ₹30,000
- Accounts Receivable: ₹10,000
- Cash and Bank: ₹15,000
- Accrued Interest: ₹500
- Total Current Assets: ₹55,500
Liabilities:
- Non-Current Liabilities:
- Loan: ₹20,000
- Current Liabilities:
- Accounts Payable: ₹10,000
- Outstanding Rent: ₹2,000
- Total Current Liabilities: ₹12,000
- Equity:
- Capital: ₹50,000
- Profit for the Year: ₹20,000
- Total Equity: ₹70,000
Conclusion:
- Trading Account determines the Gross Profit by comparing sales and COGS.
- Profit and Loss Account calculates the Net Profit by factoring in operating expenses.
- Balance Sheet presents the financial position of the company by showing the relationship between assets, liabilities, and equity.
- Adjustments ensure the accuracy and completeness of financial reporting, reflecting accrued incomes or outstanding expenses.
- Marshalling of the balance sheet organizes the financial data logically, highlighting liquidity for assets and maturity for liabilities.
This case study provides a comprehensive understanding of how to prepare and adjust final accounts with proper marshalling of the Balance Sheet
White paper on Final Accounts and Concept of Trading, Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), Marshalling of Balance Sheet ?
White Paper: Final Accounts and the Concept of Trading, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet (with and without Adjustments), Marshalling of Balance Sheet
1. Introduction
Final accounts are the essential financial statements prepared by businesses at the end of an accounting period, usually for a year. These accounts summarize the financial performance and position of an entity, and they include the Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, and the Balance Sheet. Together, these statements provide a comprehensive view of a company’s operations, financial results, and overall health.
This white paper discusses the concept of Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet, focusing on how these statements are prepared both with and without adjustments. We will also explore the Marshalling of the Balance Sheet, which organizes assets and liabilities in a specific order based on liquidity and maturity.
2. The Purpose of Final Accounts
The main purpose of preparing final accounts is to:
- Summarize the financial performance of the business over a specified period.
- Determine profit or loss by calculating income and expenses.
- Assess the financial position of the company through its assets, liabilities, and equity.
- Comply with statutory requirements, ensuring transparency and accountability for stakeholders such as investors, regulators, and tax authorities.
3. Components of Final Accounts
3.1 Trading Account
The Trading Account is used to calculate the Gross Profit or Gross Loss. It primarily reflects the cost of goods sold (COGS), which is the direct cost associated with producing or purchasing goods sold during the period.
- Formula: Gross Profit=Sales−Cost of Goods Sold\text{Gross Profit} = \text{Sales} – \text{Cost of Goods Sold}Gross Profit=Sales−Cost of Goods Sold
Key elements of the Trading Account:
- Opening Stock: The inventory available at the beginning of the period.
- Purchases: Goods bought for resale or raw materials used for production.
- Closing Stock: The unsold goods or inventory left at the end of the period.
- Sales: The total revenue from selling goods during the accounting period.
3.2 Profit and Loss Account
The Profit and Loss Account (P&L Account) calculates the Net Profit or Net Loss by accounting for operating expenses, income, and other non-operating factors.
- Formula: Net Profit=Gross Profit−Operating Expenses\text{Net Profit} = \text{Gross Profit} – \text{Operating Expenses}Net Profit=Gross Profit−Operating Expenses
Key elements of the Profit and Loss Account:
- Gross Profit: Derived from the Trading Account.
- Operating Expenses: Such as rent, salaries, utilities, depreciation, etc.
- Other Income: Non-operating income like interest or dividends.
The final result from the P&L Account gives an indication of the company’s profitability over the period.
3.3 Balance Sheet
The Balance Sheet represents the financial position of a company at a specific point in time. It lists all the assets and liabilities, and shows the relationship between the two through the equity section.
- Formula: Assets=Liabilities+Equity\text{Assets} = \text{Liabilities} + \text{Equity}Assets=Liabilities+Equity
Key elements of the Balance Sheet:
- Assets: What the company owns (tangible and intangible), divided into current and non-current assets.
- Non-current assets: Long-term assets such as property, machinery, etc.
- Current assets: Short-term assets like cash, accounts receivable, and stock.
- Liabilities: What the company owes, divided into current and non-current liabilities.
- Non-current liabilities: Long-term debts like loans.
- Current liabilities: Short-term obligations such as accounts payable, outstanding expenses, etc.
- Equity: Represents the ownership interest in the business, including capital and retained earnings.
4. Adjustments in Final Accounts
Adjustments are required to ensure the accuracy and completeness of financial reporting. These adjustments are made at the end of the accounting period, affecting both the Profit and Loss Account and the Balance Sheet.
Common adjustments include:
- Outstanding Expenses: Expenses incurred but not paid yet (e.g., outstanding rent).
- Prepaid Expenses: Expenses paid in advance (e.g., insurance premiums).
- Accrued Income: Income earned but not received (e.g., interest income).
- Bad Debts: Amounts receivable that are unlikely to be collected.
- Depreciation: The reduction in the value of fixed assets over time.
Example of an adjustment:
- If Rent of ₹2,000 is outstanding, it must be added to both the Rent expense in the Profit and Loss Account and the Accounts Payable in the Balance Sheet.
5. Final Accounts with Adjustments
5.1 Trading Account with Adjustments
In a Trading Account with adjustments, any changes in inventory, purchases, or sales are reflected. For example, if the closing stock is adjusted, it will impact both the gross profit calculation and the value of the inventory in the Balance Sheet.
5.2 Profit and Loss Account with Adjustments
In a Profit and Loss Account with adjustments, items like outstanding rent, prepaid expenses, and accrued income are adjusted to ensure accurate reporting of profit. Adjustments to depreciation and interest income/expense are also made.
5.3 Balance Sheet with Adjustments
The Balance Sheet with adjustments will reflect the changes due to adjustments such as:
- Outstanding expenses (increased current liabilities).
- Accrued income (increased current assets).
- Depreciation (reduced value of non-current assets).
- Profit for the year (increased equity).
6. Marshalling of the Balance Sheet
Marshalling refers to the arrangement of items in the Balance Sheet in a specific order based on liquidity and maturity.
- Assets are marshalled in order of liquidity, i.e., from most liquid (cash) to least liquid (fixed assets).
- Current Assets (Cash, Receivables, Inventory)
- Non-Current Assets (Property, Machinery, Intangibles)
- Liabilities are marshalled based on their maturity:
- Current Liabilities (Accounts Payable, Short-term Loans)
- Non-Current Liabilities (Long-term Loans)
- Equity represents the owner’s residual interest after liabilities have been deducted from assets.
The structure ensures that stakeholders can easily assess the financial health and liquidity of the company.
7. Conclusion
Final accounts are essential for understanding a company’s financial performance and position. The Trading Account provides a snapshot of gross profit by comparing sales and costs. The Profit and Loss Account shows how the company’s operational efficiency leads to either profit or loss. The Balance Sheet represents the financial position at a point in time, summarizing what the company owns and owes.
Adjustments ensure that the accounts reflect the true financial situation of the business, and the Marshalling of the Balance Sheet organizes the data to highlight liquidity and solvency. Together, these statements are critical tools for management, investors, creditors, and other stakeholders to make informed decisions about the business.
8. Recommendations for Best Practices
- Regular Adjustments: Businesses should regularly make adjustments for accruals and prepayments to ensure accuracy.
- Proper Marshalling: Always use the marshalling method to ensure clarity and transparency in the financial reporting process.
- Comprehensive Review: Conduct periodic reviews of final accounts to capture any missing adjustments and ensure compliance with accounting standards.
This white paper serves as a guide to understanding the critical concepts involved in preparing final accounts, from Trading Accounts to Profit and Loss and the Balance Sheet, with the inclusion of adjustments and marshalling.
Industrial application of Final Accounts and Concept of Trading, Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), Marshalling of Balance Sheet ?
Industrial Applications of Final Accounts and the Concept of Trading, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), Marshalling of Balance Sheet
Final accounts, including the Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet, are essential financial statements used across industries to track financial performance, make informed decisions, and ensure compliance with regulations. The preparation and analysis of these accounts, with or without adjustments, is crucial for businesses in all sectors, including manufacturing, services, retail, and more.
Here, we explore the industrial applications of these financial tools, focusing on how companies in different industries utilize them to manage operations, assess financial health, and make strategic decisions.
1. Application in Manufacturing Industry
In the manufacturing industry, final accounts and the concept of Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet play a significant role in the day-to-day management and long-term planning of a business.
Trading Account
- Purpose: The Trading Account is used to determine Gross Profit, which helps manufacturers understand the direct cost of producing goods. This is especially important for businesses in manufacturing sectors like automobiles, textiles, and consumer goods.
- Industrial Application:
- Inventory Management: The Trading Account helps track the movement of raw materials and finished goods inventory. Adjustments for opening stock, closing stock, and purchases allow manufacturers to calculate the Cost of Goods Sold (COGS) accurately.
- Cost Control: By comparing sales revenue with production costs, manufacturers can assess profitability and efficiency, helping to identify areas where cost-cutting measures might be implemented.
Profit and Loss Account
- Purpose: The Profit and Loss Account shows the Net Profit or Net Loss by factoring in operating expenses such as wages, utilities, and depreciation.
- Industrial Application:
- Operational Efficiency: Manufacturing companies use the P&L account to track their expenses and compare them with revenue to monitor profitability.
- Budgeting and Forecasting: Businesses can adjust for seasonal variances, price fluctuations in raw materials, or changes in labor costs.
- Depreciation: Adjustments for depreciation on machinery, vehicles, and plant equipment are critical for understanding the asset management and long-term capital expenditure needs.
Balance Sheet
- Purpose: The Balance Sheet is used to assess the company’s financial health by showing its assets, liabilities, and equity.
- Industrial Application:
- Asset Management: Manufacturing companies frequently deal with large investments in plant, machinery, and inventory. Proper reporting of non-current assets (e.g., factory buildings, equipment) and current assets (e.g., raw materials, work-in-progress) is vital.
- Liabilities Management: The balance sheet helps monitor the company’s obligations to creditors, loans, and supplier payments, which are critical for cash flow management.
- Marshalling of the Balance Sheet: Ensures that assets are listed in order of liquidity, and liabilities are grouped by maturity, helping stakeholders assess the company’s ability to meet short-term and long-term obligations.
2. Application in Retail Industry
In the retail industry, final accounts are essential for evaluating the profitability and operational efficiency of retail businesses, which often have high turnover and inventory volume.
Trading Account
- Purpose: The Trading Account determines the gross profit by comparing sales and the cost of goods sold (COGS).
- Industrial Application:
- Inventory Turnover: Retailers use the Trading Account to assess inventory levels, purchase trends, and the timing of stock procurement. Adjustments for stock levels (opening and closing stock) ensure that accurate cost of goods sold figures are used.
- Pricing Strategy: Gross profit margin calculation helps retailers adjust their pricing strategies based on the cost of goods sold.
Profit and Loss Account
- Purpose: The Profit and Loss Account reflects the net profit or loss, factoring in operating expenses such as rent, marketing, and wages.
- Industrial Application:
- Cost Control: Retailers monitor expenses, including employee wages, utilities, rent, and depreciation, to ensure that costs do not exceed revenue.
- Tax Planning: Retailers use the P&L account to calculate their taxable income and adjust for deductions like depreciation or bad debts.
- Seasonality Adjustments: The retail industry often experiences seasonal fluctuations in sales (e.g., holidays). Adjustments in the P&L for accruals or deferrals of expenses help smooth the financial impact of these fluctuations.
Balance Sheet
- Purpose: The Balance Sheet outlines the business’s financial standing, showing assets, liabilities, and owners’ equity at a given point in time.
- Industrial Application:
- Asset and Liability Management: Retail businesses track current assets like cash, inventory, and receivables, and current liabilities like payables and short-term loans.
- Working Capital: Retailers rely on their Balance Sheet to determine their working capital (current assets minus current liabilities) to manage day-to-day operations effectively.
3. Application in Service Industry
For companies in the service industry, such as consulting firms, software companies, and financial services providers, final accounts provide insights into financial performance without tangible product-related transactions.
Trading Account
- Purpose: The Trading Account helps in calculating gross profit by measuring the difference between service revenue and the cost of providing those services (e.g., direct labor, materials).
- Industrial Application:
- Cost Allocation: In service-based businesses, the Trading Account may not be as detailed as in manufacturing or retail, but it can still be used to allocate direct costs related to service delivery.
- Revenue Recognition: Service companies, especially in fields like consulting, need to track revenue from billable hours or contracts, and this can be adjusted in the trading account.
Profit and Loss Account
- Purpose: This account determines the net profit after deducting operating expenses (e.g., salaries, rent, office supplies, marketing).
- Industrial Application:
- Service Pricing: Service businesses rely heavily on the P&L Account to determine if their pricing structure is profitable after accounting for overhead costs.
- Expense Management: Since service businesses are typically labor-intensive, the P&L helps track employee-related expenses, depreciation, and other operational costs.
Balance Sheet
- Purpose: The Balance Sheet shows the financial position of a service company by listing its assets, liabilities, and equity.
- Industrial Application:
- Intangible Assets: Service companies often deal with intangible assets like intellectual property (IP), trademarks, and software development costs. These need to be correctly classified and valued in the balance sheet.
- Receivables and Payables: Managing accounts receivable (from clients) and accounts payable (to vendors) is crucial for service companies, and this is effectively tracked through the balance sheet.
- Liquidity: Liquidity is particularly important in service industries, especially for businesses relying on project-based or retainer contracts. A well-managed balance sheet helps in assessing the company’s capacity to fulfill its short-term financial obligations.
4. Conclusion
The preparation and analysis of final accounts (Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet) are crucial in various industries for evaluating financial performance, managing costs, and ensuring financial stability. In the manufacturing, retail, and service industries, final accounts serve as essential tools for internal and external stakeholders to make informed decisions.
- Trading Account helps in evaluating direct costs and profitability from operations.
- Profit and Loss Account is used for tracking net profitability and expense management.
- Balance Sheet provides insights into the overall financial position, asset management, liabilities, and equity.
Adjustments ensure that the financial statements reflect the actual situation, and marshalling the balance sheet provides clarity and helps in assessing liquidity and solvency.
Final accounts and their analysis help businesses across industries streamline operations, optimize costs, and maintain profitability.
Research and development Final Accounts and Concept of Trading, Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet (with and without adjustments), Marshalling of Balance Sheet ?
Research and Development (R&D) in Final Accounts:
Research and Development (R&D) is a critical component for many businesses, particularly in industries like pharmaceuticals, technology, engineering, and manufacturing. The Final Accounts of a company, which include the Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet, are significantly influenced by the expenditures related to R&D activities. This section explains how R&D affects these financial statements, including concepts of adjustments and marshalling of the Balance Sheet.
1. Final Accounts and R&D Concept
a. Trading Account
The Trading Account is designed to calculate Gross Profit by comparing sales revenue with cost of goods sold (COGS). However, the inclusion of R&D expenditures in the trading account needs careful treatment based on accounting standards and practices.
- Direct Impact of R&D: Typically, R&D costs do not appear directly in the Trading Account unless they are directly associated with the production of goods sold. For example, in a manufacturing company, R&D costs for developing new products may be part of the cost of production.
- Indirect Impact: If R&D efforts are related to enhancing existing products or processes, indirect costs like materials, labor, and overheads associated with R&D may be included in the cost of goods sold or be treated as operating expenses.
Adjustments for R&D:
- Capitalization vs. Expense: Under IAS 38 or US GAAP, companies can either capitalize certain R&D costs (treat them as assets) or expense them in the period incurred, based on whether the project has met specific criteria (e.g., development stage vs. research stage).
- Inventory Adjustments: If the R&D directly impacts product development, then adjustments in the Trading Account could be made for raw materials or work-in-progress related to the development of new products.
b. Profit and Loss Account
The Profit and Loss Account (P&L) calculates the Net Profit or Net Loss after accounting for operating expenses such as R&D costs, marketing, depreciation, and overheads. R&D costs are a critical element in determining profitability, especially in industries that heavily invest in innovation and product development.
- Treatment of R&D Expenses:
- If the R&D activities are expensed, they directly reduce the net profit for the period in which they are incurred.
- If the R&D is capitalized (i.e., recognized as an intangible asset in the balance sheet), the costs are not immediately expensed but amortized over the useful life of the resulting product or technology.
Adjustments for R&D:
- Expense Adjustment: If the R&D costs are to be expensed, they are added under operating expenses in the P&L Account. If the costs are capitalized, amortization or impairment might be adjusted.
- Deferred Revenue or Grants: If the company receives any R&D-related grants or government subsidies, these may need to be adjusted in the P&L Account, either as income or a reduction in the R&D expense.
c. Balance Sheet
The Balance Sheet reflects a company’s financial position at a given point in time, detailing assets, liabilities, and owner’s equity.
- R&D Assets: R&D costs that meet capitalization criteria are recorded as intangible assets on the balance sheet (under the category Intangible Assets or Non-Current Assets). These assets are typically amortized over time.
- Development Costs: Development expenditures that lead to a recognizable asset (such as patents, trademarks, or proprietary technology) are capitalized and amortized.
- Research Costs: Research costs, however, are typically expensed in the period incurred and not capitalized as assets.
- R&D Liabilities: Any short-term liabilities or long-term debts incurred to fund R&D projects will appear as part of the company’s overall liabilities.
Adjustments for R&D:
- Amortization of Capitalized R&D: If R&D expenditures have been capitalized, then the company must adjust for the amortization of these costs in the Balance Sheet.
- Impairment: If the development of a product does not result in future economic benefits, the intangible asset may need to be impaired, and adjustments are made in the balance sheet.
Marshalling of the Balance Sheet
- Definition: Marshalling of the Balance Sheet refers to the systematic presentation of assets and liabilities in the order of liquidity for assets and maturity for liabilities. This ensures that users can easily assess the company’s short-term and long-term financial health.
- Impact of R&D:
- Capitalized R&D: When R&D is capitalized as an intangible asset, it is placed under non-current assets (intangible assets section) and amortized over its useful life.
- Current R&D Expenses: Any R&D costs that are expensed immediately will affect the current liabilities and profitability in the short term, but do not appear as assets on the Balance Sheet.
- Funding for R&D: If the company has taken loans or raised capital specifically for R&D, these funds would appear under current or long-term liabilities, depending on the repayment terms.
2. Industry-Specific Examples of R&D in Final Accounts
Pharmaceutical Industry
- R&D Investment: In pharmaceutical companies, a large portion of the costs is devoted to research and development of new drugs. These costs can be significant, often leading to capitalizing certain development costs once they meet the criteria for generating future economic benefits.
- Impact on Final Accounts:
- Trading Account: Any direct costs for raw materials or labor associated with drug production can be reflected in the Trading Account.
- P&L Account: Costs for both research and development may be expensed, but successful product development costs might be capitalized.
- Balance Sheet: Capitalized R&D costs could appear as intangible assets, while unsuccessful research may be written off.
Technology and Software Industry
- R&D in Software: Software companies invest heavily in R&D to develop new software solutions or enhance existing products. Costs may be capitalized if the software is expected to provide long-term revenue.
- Impact on Final Accounts:
- Trading Account: Direct costs related to software development are factored into the Trading Account.
- P&L Account: Research costs are expensed, but development costs for new software that meet capitalization criteria are included as intangible assets in the Balance Sheet.
- Balance Sheet: The capitalized costs appear as intangible assets and are amortized over time.
Automotive Industry
- R&D in Automotive Design: Automotive companies invest in R&D to design and test new models, improve fuel efficiency, and develop environmentally friendly technologies.
- Impact on Final Accounts:
- Trading Account: The costs associated with R&D for prototype development can be reflected in the Trading Account as part of the cost of goods sold.
- P&L Account: Direct expenses related to R&D for new vehicles are expensed, while successful development costs might be capitalized.
- Balance Sheet: If R&D leads to patented technologies, these are capitalized and shown under non-current assets.
3. Conclusion
R&D plays a pivotal role in driving innovation across industries, and its treatment in Final Accounts is crucial for ensuring accurate financial reporting. The Trading Account, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet all need to reflect the financial implications of R&D activities, which can involve complex adjustments:
- Marshalling of the Balance Sheet ensures the proper classification of R&D costs as either capitalized intangible assets or expensed costs.
- Adjustments related to capitalization and amortization of R&D expenditures affect both the P&L Account and the Balance Sheet.
Companies in industries like pharmaceuticals, technology, and automotive regularly face R&D investments that impact their financial statements and decisions. A well-structured accounting system helps businesses manage these investments efficiently, ensuring compliance with financial standards while maintaining a focus on long-term profitability and growth.
Courtesy : Accountancy Youthsvilla
Reference
^ “Financial Accounting – Definition from KWHS”. The Wharton School. 28 February 2011. Retrieved 13 July 2018.
^ “Who We Are – January 2015” (PDF). IFRS.org. IFRS Foundation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2015. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
^ IFRS Conceptual Framework(2010) Par. OB2
^ European Accounting Association, Response to Question 26, Comment Letter to the Discussion Paper regarding the Review of the Conceptual Framework, on Page 2 of comment letters, dated 2014-01-24 Archived 2014-07-29 at the Wayback Machine
^ “IAS 1 – Presentation of Financial Statements”. Deloitte Global. Retrieved May 9, 2017.
^ Larry M. Walther, Christopher J. Skousen, “Long-Term Assets”, Ventus Publishing ApS, 2009
^ Gavin, Matt (30 August 2019). “GAAP VS. IFRS: WHAT ARE THE KEY DIFFERENCES AND WHICH SHOULD YOU USE?”. Harvard Business School Online. Retrieved 2 November 2020.
^ Malhotra, DK; Poteau, Ray (2016). Financial Accounting I. Academic Publishing. ISBN 978-1627517300.
^ Fred., Phillips (2011). Fundamentals of financial accounting. Libby, Robert., Libby, Patricia A. (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin. ISBN 9780073527109. OCLC 457010553.
^ Paul H. Walgenbach, Norman E. Dittrich and Ernest I. Hanson, (1973), New York: Harcourt Grace Javonovich, Inc. Page 429.
^ Cost and Management Accounting. Intermediate. The Institute of Cost Accountants of India. p. 17.
“Presentation of Financial Statements” Standard IAS 1, International Accounting Standards Board. Accessed 24 June 2007.
^ “The Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements” International Accounting Standards Board. Accessed 24 June 2007.
^ “Accounting standards and value relevance of financial statements: An international analysis”. Science Direct. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
^ “IAS 27 — Separate Financial Statements (2011)”. www.iasplus.com. IAS Plus (This material is provided by Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (“DTTL”), or a member firm of DTTL, or one of their related entities. This material is provided “AS IS” and without warranty of any kind, express or implied. Without limiting the foregoing, neither Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (“DTTL”), nor any member firm of DTTL (a “DTTL Member Firm”), nor any of their related entities (collectively, the “Deloitte Network”) warrants that this material will be error-free or will meet any particular criteria of performance or quality, and each entity of the Deloitte Network expressly disclaims all implied warranties, including without limitation warranties of merchantability, title, fitness for a particular purpose, non-infringement, compatibility, and accuracy.). Retrieved 2013-11-29.
^ “IFRS 10 — Consolidated Financial Statements”. www.iasplus.com. IAS Plus (This material is provided by Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (“DTTL”), or a member firm of DTTL, or one of their related entities. This material is provided “AS IS” and without warranty of any kind, express or implied. Without limiting the foregoing, neither Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (“DTTL”), nor any member firm of DTTL (a “DTTL Member Firm”), nor any of their related entities (collectively, the “Deloitte Network”) warrants that this material will be error-free or will meet any particular criteria of performance or quality, and each entity of the Deloitte Network expressly disclaims all implied warranties, including without limitation warranties of merchantability, title, fitness for a particular purpose, non-infringement, compatibility, and accuracy.). Retrieved 2013-11-29.
^ FASB, 2001. Improving Business Reporting: Insights into Enhancing Voluntary Disclosures. Retrieved on April 20, 2012.
^ MD&A & Other Performance Reporting
^ “Nico Resources Management’s Discussion and Analysis”. Archived from the original on 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2014-02-19.
^ “PepsiCo Management’s Discussion and Analysis”. Archived from the original on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2014-02-19.
Williams, Jan R.; Susan F. Haka; Mark S. Bettner; Joseph V. Carcello (2008). Financial & Managerial Accounting. McGraw-Hill Irwin. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-07-299650-0.
^ “Four Types of Financial Statements”. William & Mary. 2022-11-28. Retrieved 2024-02-15.
^ Daniels, Mortimer (1980). Corporation Financial Statements. New York City: Arno Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 0-405-13514-9.
^ Williams, p.50
^ “US Small Business Administration sample spreadsheet for a small business”. Archived from the original on 2007-07-15. Retrieved 2003-08-10.
^ “Microsoft Corporation balance sheet, June 30, 2004”. Microsoft.com. Retrieved 2012-10-04.
^ “International Business Machines “Global Financing” balance sheet comparing 2003 to 2004″. Ibm.com. Retrieved 2012-10-04.
^ “Balance sheet comparing two year-end balance sheets”. Retrieved 2012-10-04.
^ “Balance sheet comparing two year-end balance sheets”. Archived from the original on 2007-10-19. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
^ “Personal balance sheet structure” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-03-07. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
^ Williams, p. 50.
^ “Get more funding”. Business Guide. U.S. Small Business Administration. Retrieved 2022-07-15.
^ Charity Commission for England and Wales, Receipts and Payments Accounts Introductory Notes, document CC16b, published June 2013, new format January 2017, accessed 16 November 2023
^ “Personal balance sheet structure”. Archived from the original on 2007-11-19. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
^ “STATE OF ALABAMA CHART OF ACCOUNTS” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-07-29. Retrieved 2007-09-21.
^ “New York State (USA) public utilities balance sheet accounts”. Archived from the original on 2017-03-24. Retrieved 2012-07-24.
^ “Presentation of Financial Statements” International Accounting Standards Board. Accessed 24 June 2007.
^ Epstein, Barry J.; Eva K. Jermakowicz (2007). Interpretation and Application of International Financial Reporting Standards. John Wiley & Sons. p. 931. ISBN 978-0-471-79823-1.
^ Accounting Tools, Inc., Net current assets definition, published 28 October 2023, accessed 15 November 2023
^ “IFRS VS GAAP: BALANCE SHEET AND INCOME STATEMENT”. Accounting-financial-tax.com. Archived from the original (web) on 2019-04-30. Retrieved 2016-05-14.
